Deism, a form of Natural Religion denying the intervention of God in the
affairs of men, pervaded the intellectual life of Blake's age. The deists were the
true spiritual descendants of Bacon, Newton, and Locke as Blake understood
them. Early in the 18th Century Voltaire, much taken with the English deists, had
spread their peculiar faith around the intellectual circles of Europe. Deism
became the fashionable faith of the upper classes in England and on the
continent as well. Many Anglican clergy of that day had strong deistical
leanings. Most historians believe that Washington and his associates were deists
as well as vestrymen, much as recent Mexican presidents have been Masons as
well as Roman Catholics.
Throughout the early and middle 18th Century deism largely belonged to the
gentility. During Blake's lifetime it filtered down to the masses. In America the
deist patricians, our forefathers, used the deist staymaker, Thomas Paine, as an
inflammatory propagandist for their cause. This identification of deists with
political reform explains the ambiguity Blake felt and expressed toward them.
He despised their Natural Religion, but admired their enlightened political views.
He counted Thomas Paine a friend and found his religion relatively
non-threatening and his political views refreshing. It was natural for him to
react defensively against the attack on Paine of Bishop Watson, whom Blake
considered a lackey of the State.
Nevertheless Blake refuted the deist doctrine. One of his earliest theological
statements was his Tractate, "There is No Natural Religion" . He dedicated the
third chapter of 'Jerusalem' to the deists, and in the prose introduction
addressed them very straightforwardly: the deist, he said, is "in the State named
Rahab ,
Blake went on to make two primary charges. First, the deist "teaches that
Man is Righteous in his Vegetated Spectre: an Opinion of fatal & accursed
consequence to Man". Blake in contrast maintained that "Man is born a Spectre
or Satan, & is altogether an Evil". Blake's second charge stems from the first:
these "originally righteous" deists promote War and blame it on the spiritually
religious.
Blake deplored the hypocrisy of the philosophes, who did indeed "charge
the poor Monks & religious with being the causes of War, while you acquit and
flatter the Alexanders & Caesars, the Lewises & Fredericks, who alone are its
causes and its actors" (Portion of Jerusalem, Plate 52)
Blake himself had blamed war on the religious, not the poor monk, but the
bishop and archbishop. At a deeper level Blake knew that the man righteous in
his own eyes is the man who kills, while "the Glory of Christianity is to Conquer
by Forgiveness".
Probably the prevalent opinion of the well to do churchly of deistical
inclinations held that religion is a good thing to keep the masses content; they
supported the Church as a primary bulwark of social stability. This attitude more
than anything else motivated Blake's radical anti-churchly stance. He knew it as
a perversion of everything Jesus stood for. In the great "Wheel of Religion" poem
opening the fourth chapter of 'Jerusalem' he gave his final and considered
opinion of the deists' Natural Religion.
made of the word 'church' in his poetry.
Blake's Friends
To the best of our knowledge Blake belonged to no organized church. We do
know of two groups which might generically qualify as churches, using the word
in its broadest possible sense. The first gathered around the radical publisher,
Joseph Johnson, Blake's primary employer and the friend of Mary
Wollstonecraft, Joseph Priestly, Richard Price, Thomas Paine and other radical
intellectuals. While the conventional church exists as a primary bulwark of the
status quo, Joseph Johnson's group by and large conceived of Christ as a
revolutionary. Dissenters of a variety of persuasions, they were united by their
awareness of the need for social and political change. They considered this the
primary agenda of any truly spiritual communion.
Blake was in accord with these ideas. The Johnson group nurtured him and
provided the communal support which we generally associate with church
groups. The second group gathered around Blake in his last decade. It was made
up of young artists, some of them devout. They looked to Blake for aesthetic
and spiritual guidance and provided him the communal support that lent grace
to his last years.
After Blake's Moment of Grace around 1800 he might have joined a church
if he could have found one whose primary doctrine was the forgiveness of sins.
But like Milton before him and Lincoln after him he never discovered a church
that met his qualifications.
Anyone who loves Blake and has had a happier experience of the church
could wish for him more in the way of community. Alienated from the
worshiping community by its partial theology and partial practice, he was
confined to his own visions and the nurture he could find at the outer fringes of
the church. In addition he learned from the Christian classics of the ages,
particularly the off beat ones. St. Teresa was a favorite.
We know little or nothing of the social agency by which the Ranter tradition came down to him. All of these are elements of the Universal Church upon which Blake drew and to which he belonged. Blessed with a worshiping fellowship beyond that of his wife, his lot might have been happier and his witness plainer to others.
Even so the church is fortunate to have his contribution. Isaiah and Jeremiah, not to mention Jesus, also suffered alienation from their communities. At the deepest level none of the four men rejected the church, but rather the church rejected them. Blake was too deeply attached to the priesthood of the believer to be able to submit to any spiritual authority politically assigned: Let every man be "King and Priest in his own house". In the words of Foster Damon "The Church Universal was the only church that Blake recognized. Its doctrine is the Everlasting Gospel, its congregation the Brotherhood of Man, its symbol the Woman in the Wilderness, its architecture Gothic (p.82)."
ii
What he Said
A little black thing among the snow, Crying "'weep! 'weep!" in notes of woe! "Where are thy father & mother? Say?" "They are both gone up to the church to pray. "Because I was happy upon the heath, "And smil'd among the winter's snow, "They clothed me in the clothes of death, "And taught me to sing the notes of woe.
"And because I am happy & dance & sing, "They think they have done me no injury, "And are gone to praise God & his Priest & King, "Who make up a heaven of our misery."
(The Chimney Sweeper; Songs of Experience)
Surely the church has become more human since Blake's day, when it could condone the employment of five year olds as chimney sweepers and in fact their legal sale by their parents for such a purpose. Even more bald in its ecclesiastical implications is "The Little Vagabond", which sounds very much like a Ranter's song:
Dear Mother, dear Mother, the Church is cold,
But the Ale-house is healthy & pleasant & warm;
Besides I can tell where I am used well,
Such usage in heaven will never do well. But if at the Church they would give us some Ale,
And a pleasant fire our souls to regale,
We'd sing and we'd pray all the live-long day,
Nor ever once wish from the Church to stray.
Then the Parson might preach, & drink, & sing,
And we'd be as happy as birds in the spring;
And modest dame Lurch, who is always at Church,
Would not have bandy children, nor fasting, nor birch.
And God, like a father rejoicing to see
His children as pleasant and happy as he,
Would have no more quarrel with the Devil or the Barrel,
But kiss him, & give him both drink and apparel.
(The Little Vagabond)
In 'Europe' , written about the same time, Blake recounts the degradation of the church with the cult of chivalry and the Queen of Heaven:
Now comes the night of Enitharmon's joy!
Who shall I call? Who shall I send,
That Woman, lovely Woman, may have dominion?
Arise, O Rintrah, thee I call! & Palambron, thee!
Go! tell the Human race that Woman's love is Sin;
That an Eternal life awaits the worms of sixty winters
In an allegorical abode where existence hath never come.
Forbid all Joy, & from her childhood shall the little female
Spread nets in every secret path.
(Europe 5:1ff, Erdman 62)
Enitharmon's grammar in the second line indicates her essential falsity, assuming the place of the true God (See Isaiah 6 ). But after 1800 Blake rehabilitates Enitharmon, and Rahab becomes his symbol of the false church; she continually afflicts Jerusalem and finally crucifies Jesus (See 4Z and J). Blake used the word 'church' in some rather unconventional ways. In Milton, Plate 37 and later in 'Jerusalem' Plate 76 he divided human history into 27 Churches, made up of three groups. The first corresponds to the nine antediluvian patriarchs (Adam to Lamech) taken from Genesis 5. The second group includes the patriarchs from Noah to Terah, the father of Abraham. For the third series Blake chose seven famous religious leaders from Abraham to Luther; each of these represents for Blake a certain type or phase of religious history:
The first two groups were druidic (devoted to cultic murder), but Abraham began to curtail human sacrifice when he chose a ram instead of Issac (See Genesis 22 ). Moses brought the Law; Solomon represents Wisdom. Paul represents the early Christian Church. Constantine marks its embrace by the highest satanic power. Charlemayne founded the Holy Roman Empire, and Luther brings us to the modern age. All of these except Paul resorted to war; therefore Blake referred to these Churches as "Religion hid in war".
Blake felt that he had described a natural progression going nowhere for "where Luther ends, Adam begins again in Eternal Circle", but this "Eternal Circle" is interrupted by Jesus, who, "breaking thro' the Central zones of Death & Hell,/ Opens Eternity in Time & Space, triumphant in Mercy". There in its most concentrated form is Blake's 6000 year history of the church.
Bear in mind that 27 is a super sinister number; Frye described it as "the cube of thee, the supreme aggravation of three". A happier constellation of 28 (a composite of the complete numbers four and seven) occurs in 'Jerusalem' where England's cathedral cities are called the Friends of Albion. With this image Blake recognized that in spite of all its sins the church had exercised a beneficent influence upon the course of history. Blake habitually picked one of these cities to represent an important historical personage.
For example Ely, the cathedral city of Cambridgeshire, stands for Milton, the greatest man produced by Cambridge. Verulam, an ancient name for Canterbury, represents Francis Bacon , one of Blake's chief devils. Professor Erdman informed us that Bath represents Rev. Richard Warner, a courageous minister who preached against war in 1804, when to do such a thing bordered on sedition. Blake's admiration for Warner led to the prominence which he gave Bath in the second chapter of 'Jerusalem'.
Aside from these prophetic and poetic excursions the Blakean doctrine of the church found in the myth is roughly as follows: The Church is Beulah. The majority of the population exist beneath it, spiritually asleep, living what Blake called Eternal Death without even a murmur of discontent. Their eyes are closed to the spirit. They are seeds that do not generate. The hungry generally take refuge in a church and surrender their spiritual destiny into the keeping of a priest or a priestly community.
A few still suffer hunger and eventually may come out into the sunlight . That chosen few are, like Blake, compelled to live in a state of tension with the church that belongs to the world. The best of them continually court martyrdom and may be honored posthumously if at all. But of such is the kingdom of heaven, where like Blake they cast off the enslavement of other men's systems and create their own.
(Nels Ferre, who may or may not have known Blake, wrote a short parable that describes the Blakean doctrine of the church as well or better than Frye did. It appears in the beginning of a small book entitled The Sun and the Umbrella. The image of the church as an umbrella keeping us from the full force of the Sun is compelling and quite Blakean.)
(See also Religion and War)
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